Changes In The Concepts Of Childhood

Changes In The Concepts Of Childhood Discuss how childhood has changed since the 19th century. How do concepts from this period continue to influence current attitudes to childhood? What is childhood Childhood, the early years of a persons life, between birth to about 8 years, is also considered most beautiful, most meaningful and most important part of life for a human being. The importance of childhood can be understood by observing the fact that though many scientists have different theories to define the process of human development they all agree on the importance of childhood and experiences in that time having a profound affect on an individuals life. Many researches have been made on the process of human development and tough there are many proposed theories the actual difference between them is about how complex the relation really is between the stages and not what the stages really are. The differences are intrinsic not extrinsic. They all agree that childhood is a time when a person is moving from concrete to abstract thought. Man did learn sciences such as astrology, numerology, mathematics etc but the concept of schooling was deficient. People only knew as much as was required to trade and earn a living. A study conducted on child development concluded that in the year 1750 about 33 percent of infants and new born babies were left on doorsteps or social care homes by parents. (Archard, 1993)Poor children were also made to work in land mines and other industries by their parents to earn a living. Efforts to eradicate child labor have been made over centuries by the responsible government bodies in different countries and social welfare organizations in the world. But it seems that despite the changing perceptions towards childhood, statistical data proves otherwise. The commencement of specific child development theories and acknowledgment of these theories only date back to some 200 years ago, in the 17th and 18th century. An acclaimed name, in this regard is of Professor Malcolm W. Watson. (Heywood, 2001)He researched on Human Development and formed theories that are still studied and followed. Results of his findings emphasized on six major theories by different people in different times. These theories focus on different stages man goes through from infancy to adulthood. Details of how environment and other factors affect childhood are also underscored. The theories encompass effects and behavioral changes in man and what we opine about our own selves, be it scientists, researchers or a common man. Psychodynamic theory-Sigmund Freud. (James, 2004)This theory says that human psychology can be broken down in to three separate parts. These are namely the id, the ego and the superego. Id is the childish part of our personality and its driving force is food, warmth and appreciation and the sexual drive. This side of every being is then balanced by the other two parts i.e. ego and superego. The superego is contradictory to id. It is that part of human personality which enables us to control one self. Through this one acts in a socially acceptable manner. The ego is some where in the middle of these two extremes. Most of our troubles arise from balancing between the id and the superego. Oedipus complex is another very important entity of Freuds theory. This stage is when the child develops feelings for his opposite sex parents. Boys wish to take place of their father and be the head of the family and act as a husband to their mother but at the same time they respect their father and fear that if they cross limits they will have to bare the consequences. Psychosocial theory by Erik Erickson (Kehily, 2003)He coined the famous phrase Identity Crisis. His personality theory had 8 stages from infancy to old age. These were 1. Hope, 2. Will, 3. Purpose, 4. Competence, 5. Fidelity, 6. Love, 7. Caring, 8. Wisdom. Erik was the first to bring forth the notion that development is spread over our entire lives and not just childhood. Integrated Attachment theory- John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth: This theory originated in the early years of 1950s and was a joint effort by John Bowlby, specialist in child psychiatry and a psychologist, Mary Ainsworth. The concept is based on relationships and connections developed in the yearly years of our life. Also real life issues in a childs life pertaining to loss and separations with which he had emotional ties are emphasized upon in the theory. Social Learning theory by Albert Bandura: This theory was a modified version of the traditional learning theories. It says that learning is the same in infants, children, adults and even animals. Albert says that all respond to stimulus. Cognitive Mediation theory- Lev Vygotsky: Supporting many other major theorists, Vygotsky opines that learning comes first and paves way for development. According to his theory, a child learns through other individuals around him i.e. parents, teachers, siblings and other children. He says that developing thoughts and new skills is based on people in the environment we live in and our interaction with them. Cognitive developmental theory- Jean Piaget: Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist says that children learn by building their own cognitive worlds. He believed that individuals go through four stages of understanding. All of these are age related. Sensorimotor stage: This is from birth to two years of age. In this first stage, infants coordinate the senses of seeing and hearing with physical and motoric experiences to understand. Thus, the name sensorimotor. Preoperational stage: It goes on from two years of age to seven years. Children at this stage start relating the world and their surroundings with words and images. They go beyond the sensory experiences in this stage. Concrete Operational Stage: This third stage lasts from 7 years to eleven years. Children can perform operations, and logical reasoning replaces intuitive thought as long as reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete examples. For instance, concrete operational thinkers cannot imagine the steps necessary to complete algebraic equation, which is too abstract for thinking at this stage of development. (Mayall, 1994) Formal Operational Stage: The final stage is from 11 to 15 years. Children move further from concrete thoughts to abstracts and logical thinking. As a part of abstractive thinking they create hypothetical ideal circumstances and then compare their own life with these standards, deducing a satisfactory conclusion. In a nutshell, childhood is the time when we are understanding simple operations in order to be able to understand and master complex tasks in future. We need to identify the environment around us and use language to make connections to objects and the world in general. If this basic understanding is faulty, the future would certainly hold a lot more surprises, and many of them would be unwelcome. Only when a child fully understands the world around is he really able to grasp abstract concepts and use logic to reach meaningful conclusions in future. Having now understood what childhood is all about, how a human mind is developing, in stages, to understand the world it is introduced to and how important this part of life is in your life and mine, let us now take a look into how childhood has been different for people in the past century and the present. Childhood in the 18th century Compared to Childhood in the 19th century To begin with, the treatment of children with utmost care, especially in their earliest years, is a fairly recent notion. Before the 18th century, child mortality rate was so high that people had a lot of children of whom only a few actually survived. Parents could not afford to get too emotionally attached to children until they crossed a threshold age where chances of survival became greater than chances of death. In France, during the 17th century, between 20%-50% of infants died in their first year. (5) (Wyness, 2000) Zelizer, in his book, Pricing The Priceless Child, tells us how in the middle ages, Spanish children when they died could be buried anywhere on the premises, rather like a cat or dog, often, their bodies were sewn together into sacks and put inside common graves.In early Arabian cultures, the birth of a female child was considered a burden, it was mourned upon and in cases the infant was buried alive. Religion played a vital role in controlling erratic human behaviors and in both the east and the west, the religious institution was the first to recognize the rights of children and honorable dealings with them. The following table describes how religion basd institutions have provided childhood care facilities in the African continent. (Linda, 1984) With time and with the slow but steady spread of education, the world started becoming a different place altogether, especially in respect of the rights of children, and that happened mostly during the 18th and 19th centuries. We have, as the human species, come to realize that childhood is not just a biological phase in life. It holds much more meaning; it gives birth to a social being that embodies the belief system of on an entire populace at a point in time. Parents attitudes toward child bearing and rearing have undergone drastic reconstruction in modern times. 19th Century Concepts: In the 19th century children did not have a significant importance. No formal education and learning took place inside homes. Mothers generally did not have the awareness to spend time with their children and nurture them. A father in every home has been the breadwinner since times immemorial but women in the 19th century also joined the earning league. Till the early 19th century children were used to earn a living and a study shows that more than fifty percent of factory workers were children under the age of eleven years in northern parts of the world. They were made to work hard and perform hazardous jobs such as cleaning up narrow chimneys and going down cramped tunnels owing to their small size. Most historians would agree that children in present day world are much better off than the children in past centuries. But they continue to debate the extent to which childhood has changed since the 19th century and how the adults approach to childhood and dealing with children has altered. As such, children in past centuries worked with their parents from a very small age. But it was the industrial revolution of the 19th century which actually caused the inception of child labour. Researchers in the field of human development take one of two stances when explaining early childhood. They hold either an essentialist view (which considers childhood a commonalty that is no different in any part of the world, more a biological state than anything deeper). The other view to childhood, the constructionist view pictures childhood as being different in different cultures and different times. A child in Japan would be fundamentally different than a child in Britain. The children of one count ry would also be much different at different times. We can just take a look at the children around us and see the difference between our childhood and theirs to grasp the importance of the constructionist view. Cross cultural differences in childhood and its perception by elders is linked to the societies sense of a childs autonomy. It was considered an a vital aspect of Western cultures (Holland, 1992)but was not so prominent in eastern ones. While western mothers emphasized on teaching their child personal values and their rights at , each part of their lives, Japanese and Pakistani mothers have always emphasized more on differential treatment of elders and good mannerism (Gittens, 1998)The difference, as we see it plainly today, is that Japanese children display greater sensitivity and self discipline while American children are more confident and expressive. However, it has long been a subject of argument between researchers that irrespective of the vast differences in child rearing strategies across many cultures the fundamental importance of parenthood comes out in the form of warmth and acceptance against rejection and neglect (Jenks, 1996)However whether eastern cultures have been m ore histile toward the child in the past or western cultures have been more so is a matter of debate. While western cultures have displayed a generally strict attitude toward the childrearing and the lack of acknowledgement to their a childs own autonomy, eastern cultures on the other hand believe that strictness, control and and even corporal punishment are but ways to shw a child how much a prent cares. While the Chienese may consider American parents less caring for their childrens development of important social virtues, the American parent may consider Chinese as totally autorotarian and irrational (Higgonet, 1998)However, another psychological argument presented by Scientists says that in such collectivistic cultural arrangements as the Chinese, Japanese or Indian, authoritarian and restrictive parenting practices are necessary for maintaining harmoniously stable society . Literature on childhood from different cultures across the world have shown two main stream belief systems, the concept of childhood as Dionysian and Apollonian (Jenks, 1996)The Dionysian belief, taking from the greek mythological figure Dionysus (Prince of wine, nature and revelry) assumes that every child is born with evil or corruption in its nature imbued in their conscience. The Apollonian child is considers, from nature, the very image of beauty, poetry, sunshine and light. This is the belief that is prevalent today in the 21st century but did not exist in earlier centuries. While 19th century children were treated rather like animals. The industrial revolutions laid the foundations for the market for low paid child labour. IN textile factories, they worked as many as twelve hours a day. As education crept into the masses the parliament began passing laws to curtail child labour, but the first effective rule, emforced with the help of factory inspectors, came about in 1833. Education was not considered a necessity for every child and the responsibility of the state as late as 1870 and even then the poorest members of society could not afford school fee which were abolished in 1891. Victorian children were used to beatings and in extreme circumstances, poor children were forced to wear a cap which said dunce meaning a stupid person. Children dressed like adults, were supposed to act like adults and were treated in both love and hate as adults. The extent of neglect towards children can be seen by the fact that the first public park for children was build as late as 1859 in the city of Manchester. To us then, the hundreds of complex laws that protect children from evils makes utmost sense. Sexual and physical abuse, pornography, beatings and even simple neglect are considered crimes against childhood. Special laws for the special treatment of children are now in place to ensure that children are treated with delicate care. It seems that parental affection is not much of an instinct but only a reflection of what parents consider to be their duties toward their off spring. (Higgonet, 1998) It is a fact that parents in our world today can exercise less power over their children than in the past because a part of child rearing is controlled by the state (Donzalot, 1980). However these regulations have been brought into action to curtail the misuse of parental authority over children. Good parents can still be good parents, in fact, outside interference in maters such as family etiquettes, a childs eating, dressing, sleeping and entertainment habits and the setting of acceptable beahvorial standards is considered a breach of the parents right. The state usually only intervenes when it fears that the child is being ill treated or when it believes that the child is not well brought up and would be a danger to those around him or her. John Hood Willams (1990) points out that childrens lives are controlled by their families in quite a array of ways. Their social spaces are strictly defined, their times are set by elders, their clothes and haircut is subject to the parents ima ge of decency or acceptability. Parents even provide rules to be followed when eating, walking, talking and even standing in a crowd. Children are the most vulnerable to corporal punishment or all other members in the human society (Kline, 1993) However, 19th century and present day childhood is vastly different. Todays world is quite different than in the past century. Science and technology have rocketed human understanding of life many times over. Though the industrial revolution laid the foundations of all the progress we have seen in the past two hundred years, the greatest speed in the development of sciences and discovery has been hosted by the past 60 -70 years. Increasingly, the world has accepted that it is a global arena and not one divided by geographical boundaries. Cross cultural knowledge exchange has lead to a different populace which is ready to take on aspects of other societies almost readily. The media and internet have, without a trace of doubt, the greatest importance in the life of the modern child. Children are not only aware of fashion, trends and coursework, they are also aware of their rights and that 911 can save them from a parents physical or emotional abuse. At the same time that the present ce ntury is a blessing on children, it should also be brought into account that the 20th and 21st centuries have made childhood much more prone to corruption than previous centuries. To begin with, our environment is in a state of alarm, pollution and the green house effect have starting melting glaciers. Sea levels continue to rise and natural calamities have begun to affect humans in ever increasing ways. While countries emphasize on becoming wealthier and more powerful, they continue to expand their industrial and technological horizons but do not place due importance to the physical and mental development of a child. Physical activity (especially sport) for children has become an endangered species while computers and mobile phones have taken their place as a childs entertainment activity. Life has become fast and so much so that we enjoy and prefer fast food even if it delivers extremely low nutrition value and high cholesterol levels. Drug and sex abuse of children seems to be ri sing steadily, despite the existing laws to regulate such unacceptable actions. Terrorism, radical thought and the spirit of revolution among youth have made childhood an age where there should actually be more protection and concern from parents and the state. A childs cognitive and socioemotional development is therefore at the forefront of modern worlds strategies to rear better children. Cross cultural psychological studies have discovered that there are many ways in which cultural factors help in developing a sound child who would later develop into a socially acceptable person. The organization of physical and social setup in a surrounding, dictated by culture has a profound affect on the childs mannerism and activities. Prevalent social values, customs and norms provide a medium to evaluate his own acceptability or conformity in a society. Parental beliefs and practices, which have been molded by culture play a mediating role in a childs understanding of the world in which he/she lives. Contemporary societies use the schooling system, also built around their own cultural value, to imbed certain levels of acceptability criteria in the minds of children. (Gittens, 1998) For the broad minded modern child, many pieces of information, the instance of sexual information, is quite important in order to be able to perform in an agreeable way. It has already been shown by research that romantic ideals pave way for women coming to terms with their sexual drives and experiences .(Woodhead, 2003)At the same time boys, who hardly share romantic ideals with their parents tend to take on their masculine audacity to deal with love and sexual involvement .This finally leads to a pattern of married life (seen among the general populace) where women hardly get to the emotional closeness they expect to receive from their husbands .

The Future Energy Systems Environmental Sciences Essay

The resources of biomass are limited and a deficiency of adequate available cultivated lands may be the major ground to curtail biofuel development in the long term [ 12 ] . Guaranting nutrient security has been and will ever be a national scheme for China, sing China has a monolithic population but a cultivated country per capita which is even less than half of the universe norm. China has set the biomass development rule that â€Å" developments of biomass are non allowed to vie with nutrient supply every bit good as lands, on which nutrients are supposed to be cultivated † [ 19 ] . Therefore, the potency of available fringy land resources is one of the influential factors to find the possible production of purpose-grown energy harvests. Agricultural and forestry wastes in China will play a important function in the future biomass development, in which the usage of biofuels in conveyance will hold to vie with the biomass usage of other sectors, such as electricity and heat c oevals [ 20 ] . Electricity is another AVF which drives vehicles to travel by utilizing electric motors. The application of electricity in vehicles greatly improves the vehicles ‘ energy efficiency and reduces vehicle fumes emanations, which is peculiarly of import in urban countries. Today, many trains and urban rail theodolite systems have been electrified. Electricity is provided straight from a public grid, where energy storage is by and large non a concern [ 21 ] . BEVs have drawbacks of a limited drive distance, comparatively long recharging clip, a high initial vehicle monetary value, low constituent continuances every bit good as demands of a to the full developed reloading substructure, etc. [ 22,23 ] . Plug-in intercrossed electric vehicles ( PHEVs ) emerged as a possible intermediate measure towards a to the full electric manner. Most obstructions which BEVs have to get the better of now are related to the battery engineering. This engineering is expected to optimize the bing Li bat teries in the short term and to develop new battery chemical science with significantly higher energy densenesss to enable the usage of BEVs and PHEVs with a longer all-electric scope in the long term [ 24 ] . If discoveries of the battery engineering can be obtained in the hereafter, electricity may be the most promising AVF in conveyance, due to the bear downing substructure is non basically different from the substructure of the current conveyance system. Hydrogen, an energy bearer, serves as another opportunity to replace the oil usage in conveyance. Combined with fuel cell engineering, H is transformed to electricity which is so used by electric motors to impel wheels. Advantages of a H fuel cell vehicle ( HFCV ) are observed, such as a long drive scope and zero emanation in a tank-to-wheels point of position provided H is stored on-board and produced off-board. There is another type of HFCV with on-board transforming of fuels, such as methyl alcohol, to hydrogen but with emanations from transforming fuels and a more complex on-board transforming system [ 23 ] . Today, the commercial degree of HFCVs is far behind the degree of biofuels, PHEVs and BEVs [ 25 ] . Many challenges of developing HFCVs demand to be overcome in the hereafter including efficiency betterments of fuel cell engineering and cut downing the high initial monetary value of the vehicles by maturating their on-board power system, in which batteries are besides needed today to gaining control and shop electricity, etc. However, the most ambitious issue of developing HFCVs is the deployment of the H substructure due to both the diverseness of the H production tract and dearly-won H distribution processes [ 26 ] . Replacement of oil usage, decrease of fuel ingestion every bit good as a lessening of CO2 emanations from the tank-to-wheels position are three direct benefits of utilizing electricity and H in conveyance. However, the last two benefits may lose in the electricity and H production procedure sing most current energy systems are dominated by fossil fuels. For case, electricity from the mean Chinese grid has the CO2 emanation strength ( measured as the CO2 emanation divided by the energy demand ) similar to that of a gasolene tract although a comparatively lower dodo energy ingestion strength ( measured as the dodo energy ingestion divided by the energy demand ) [ 27,28 ] . Another survey indicates that if H is produced with U.S. mean electricity ( more than 50 % of which is generated from coal-burning power workss ) , its usage, even in efficient HFCVs, can still ensue in increased CO2 emanations ; in contrast, if renewable electricity, such as air current power, is used for H producti on, the usage of H in any vehicle engineering will ensue in riddance of green house gas ( GHG ) emanations [ 29 ] . It has been shown that benefits of the oil usage replacing and the limited GHG emanation decrease can be obtained in the conveyance sector by using AVFs which are produced from dodo fuel dominated energy systems [ 30,31 ] . However, those benefits are non sufficient and current dodo fuel energy systems can non prolong the development of sustainable conveyance. It is necessary to place engineerings and schemes in conveyance, by which the oil usage can be replaced and options can be produced based on renewable energy beginnings. Consequences of implementing such engineerings and schemes in conveyance should be analysed in the context of the energy system.Future energy systemsAs discussed above, the development of sustainable conveyance with a large-scale decrease of GHG emanations and an use of oil independent options demands solutions from an overall renewable energy system. It can non be seen as an isolate development mark as the resources of biomass are limited and other options, el ectricity and H, are strongly connected with the remainder of the energy system. Most current energy systems are dominated by fossil fuels. This has posed many known challenges chiefly caused by the burning of these fossil fuels, such as clime alteration, insecure energy supply every bit good as environmental taint [ 32 ] . Those challenges will go terrible along with the addition of the dodo fuel monetary value and the growing of the energy demand in the universe. As an option, a suited substructure for the execution of renewable energy may function as a long-run sustainable solution. Future energy systems may hold at least three features compared to current dodo fuel dominated energy systems in footings of energy supply, energy transition every bit good as energy demand ( see Fig. 1-2 and Fig. 1-3 ) . Fossil Fuel 1 Power Plant Fossil Fuel 2 CHP OilaˆÂ ¦aˆÂ ¦aˆÂ ¦Heat Boiler Electricity Heat Conveyance Energy supply Energy transition Energy demand Fig. 1. A simplified illustration of a current dodo fuel dominated energy system. Abbreviations used in the figure: CHP, combined heat and power. RE 1 Intermittent Plant RE 2 CHP RheniumaˆÂ ¦aˆÂ ¦aˆÂ ¦Intermittent Heat Electricity Heat Conveyance Energy supply Energy transition Energy transition and demand POLY RE 3aˆÂ ¦aˆÂ ¦aˆÂ ¦Fig. 1. A simplified illustration of a hereafter energy system. Abbreviations used in the figure: RE, renewable energy ; POLY, poly-generation works for bio-transport fuel, heat and electricity coevals ; CHP, combined heat and power. On the energy supply side, large-scale renewable energy beginnings are expected to be utilised as primary energy in future energy systems. Renewable energy beginnings consist of renewable beginnings of electric power, such as air current power, solar power and hydropower, etc. ; renewable beginnings of thermic power, such as geothermal, solar thermal, etc. ; and biomass resources which can be converted into many signifiers including liquid fuels, bio-gas every bit good as solid fuels. Bio-energy can be utilised in assorted energy transition processes to bring forth electricity, to provide heat every bit good as to bring forth fuels for conveyance energy usage [ 3 ] . With regard to energy transition, more efficient transition and storage engineerings will be widely needed in future energy systems in which the energy transition procedure becomes more diversified and complex. One energy demand, such as electricity, can be converted from primary energy by utilizing engineerings for illustration intermittent power workss, CHPs ( in footings of steam turbines, fuel cells, etc. ) and poly-generation workss [ 33 ] . One energy demand can be converted into another such as change overing electricity to heat by utilizing heat pumps and electric boilers, etc. [ 34 ] . One signifier of the energy demand can be converted into other signifiers, such as change overing solid fuels into gas or liquid fuels by the usage of electrolysers or biogas and biofuel workss [ 35 ] . Energy storage engineerings serve as the necessary addendum through which benefits of the efficiency betterment of the transition procedure in the energy system may be reached [ 36,37 ] . On the energy demand side, the function of a concluding energy user may alter due to the execution of alternate engineerings, which respond to the demand of bettering energy efficiency in future energy systems. One illustration could be the conveyance sector which used to be the concluding oil user in the current dodo fuel dominated energy system ; nevertheless, in future energy systems it connects to the remainder of the energy system and likely starts to play functions as both nomadic energy storage and a new power beginning by implementing engineerings of EVs and vehicle-to-grid ( V2G ) [ 38,39 ] . Renewable energy engineerings, more efficient energy transition engineerings and energy economy engineerings are three cardinal elements for the hereafter sustainable energy development. Two major challenges of renewable energy schemes for sustainable energy development have been identified [ 40,41 ] . One challenge is to incorporate a high portion of intermittent renewable energy beginnings into the energy system, particularly the electricity supply. The other is to include the conveyance sector in the schemes. The intermittence of renewable energy gives rise to jobs of run intoing the uninterrupted energy demand, procuring the transmittal grid stabilization every bit good as avoiding extra electricity production, etc. [ 32,35 ] . Flexible engineerings and equal storage are both needed to ease integrating of intermittent renewable energy every bit much as possible in order to extenuate the force per unit area on the biomass use and accordingly cut down the competition for land and H 2O usage between biomass and nutrient supply. The high dependance on oil merchandises and the deficiency of mature options based on renewable energy make the conveyance sector one of the most hard sectors to be included in the renewable energy schemes. The sustainable conveyance development is an of import and necessary portion of implementing a hereafter renewable energy system.

Downsizing and Organizational Culture - 5617 Words

Downsizing and Organizational Culture By Joe Gonzalez Sociology 100 Dr. Mario Reda Table of Contents Chapter 1........................................................................................................................1 Chapter 2........................................................................................................................2 Organizational Culture Defined........................................................................2 Downsizing Defined............................................................................................3 Culture Change..................................................................................................4 Connecting the†¦show more content†¦How do you connect downsizing, which is one of a number of actions being taken, with corporate culture, which is only one of a number of crises being solved in a manner and to a level that establishes a positive relationship? Another reason that it is difficult to draw a specific link between downsizing and organizational culture is that there are many different variations and approaches to downsizing. A distinction has been made between proactive downsizing, which is planned in advance and usually integrated with a larger set of objectives, and reactive downsizing, which would be typified by cost-cutting as a last resort after a prolonged period of inattention to looming problems by management5. Work force reductions can range from forceful in nature, i.e., involuntary reductions, to the milder approaches, such as resignation incentives and job sharing 6. There are different ways of deciding who stays, who goes from the outwardly arbitrary to criterion-based 7. There are different modes of planning, ranging from secretive sessions to open discussions and solicitation of ideas from employees. There are different standards of notice of terminations, including relatively harsh same day terminations as well as more generous 90 day or longer notices. 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